Literature review compilations Essay

1. Rao, V. (1993). The rising cost of spouses: An epicurean investigation of share increments in country India. Diary of Political Economy, 666-677. Inspiration and goal : Attempts to explore the purposes for the expansion in settlement . Strategies : It adjusts Rosen’s understood market model to the Indian marriage market and tests forecasts from the model with information from six towns in South Central India and from the Indian statistics Theories : Using utility capacity, U is thought to be augmented, given that U is the utility capacity which speak to the family unit inclinations. The capacity will be U = U(X,W,H). Where X alludes to utilization of merchandise, W alludes to the attractive qualities of the lady and her family and H is attributes of the husband to be. Principle Findings : It is discovered that a â€Å"marriage squeeze† brought about by populace development, bringing about bigger more youthful associates and henceforth an excess of ladies in the marri age showcase, has assumed a noteworthy job in the ascent in endowments. ( Surplus of ladies over man at eligible ages) 2. Skogrand, L. M., Schramm, D. G., Marshall, J. P., and Lee, T. R. (2005). The impacts of obligation on love birds and suggestions for instruction. Diary of expansion, 43(3), 1. Inspiration and target : Examines the connection between love bird obligation, chose segment factors, and love bird levels of conjugal fulfillment and change.. Techniques: A 38-thing study was sent to an irregular example of 2,823 love bird couples in a western state. The couples’ names were haphazardly browsed the marriage licenses that were documented inside the state during a six-month time frame. Husbands and spouses were approached to finish their reviews separately.The reaction rate was 40%, with 1,010 couples reacting. Speculations and instruments : Marital fulfillment was estimated utilizing the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale (KMSS) (Schumm et al., 1986), and conjugal change was estimated utilizing the Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS) (Busby, Crane, Christensen, and Larson, 1995). The KMSS and RDAS are set up measures for surveying conjugal fulfillment and alteration, both having relationship coefficients over .78. Primary Findings: The discoveries from this investigation demonstrate that entering marriage with shopper obligation negatively affects love bird levels of conjugal quality. The vast dominant part (70%) of love birds in this examination brought obligation into their marriage relationship. This measure of obligation, alongside different costs related with couples starting their lives together, are likely toâ distract couples from the formative assignment of building a solid marriage relationship during the initial barely any months and long stretches of marriage Policy proposal : .- Because numerous people wed without any than a secondary school training, teaching people about obligation and its conceivably adverse effect on marriage connections should start in secondary school. This might be one approach to assist couples with accomplishing more advantageous relationships 3. S. Dalmia (2004). An indulgent examination of marriage exchanges in India: evaluating determinants of shares and demandfor groom attributes in marriage. Research in Economics 58 (2004) 235â€255. Inspiration and goal : This paper utilizes information from a review test overview to create and test a system fit for clarifying endowment trade and man of the hour choice in India. Strategies: Using an example of 1037 family units somewhere in the range of 1956 and 1994, this paper creates and tests a structure equipped for clarifying marriage exchanges and husband to be choice in India. Hypotheses and apparatuses : It adjusts Rosen’s (1974) certain market model and takes the view that share is a straightforward monetary exchange that capacities to ‘equalize’ the estimation of marriage administrations traded by the family units of the lady of the hour and lucky man. Fundamental Findings: Consistent with ethnographic proof, results show that endowments are higher in districts more toward the north. Above all, in opposition to mainstream thinking, it is discovered that holding groom qualities consistent, genuine shares have diminished after some time. At long last, in assessing the parameters of the interest capacities for a lot of man of the hour qualities, results show that the most significant determinants of interest for different lucky ma n properties are cost of the characteristic, bride’s attributes, and the financial status of the bride’s family unit 4. Siwan Anderson (2007). The Economics of Dowry and Brideprice. Diary of Economic Perspectivesâ€Volume 21, Number 4â€Fall 2007â€Pages 151â€174 Inspiration and target: This paper initially builds up some essential realities about the pervasiveness and extent of marriage installments. It at that point talks about how such examples fluctuate across nations relying on financial conditions, cultural structures, establishments, and family qualities. Speculations and apparatuses: The depictions of marriage installments in this paper are synthesizedfrom an interwoven of studies across periods, puts, and even ages, and there are surely various cases which remain undocumented. Discussion: Economists’ enthusiasm for marriage installments incompletely comes from their capability to influence the riches conveyance across ages and families. Notwithstanding, financial examination has not legitimately explored these government assistance effects of marriage installments. In this regard, marriage moves which are bound for the couple, either as endowment or dower, may work uniquely in contrast to those which are paid legitimately from one lot of guardians to the next, similar to lady of the hour cost or husband to be cost. The previous installment is an intergenerational move. The last structures a circling store, with receipt for relationships of one sex being utilized to pay for relationships of offspring of the other. 5. Sarwat Afzal and Imtiaz Subhani (2009). To Estimate An Equation Explaining The Determinants Of Dowry. Iqra University Inspiration and goal : The focal point of this investigation is to assess a condition clarifying the determinants of endowment. Techniques: The information of 140 respondents is utilized to look at the factors to decide the share size, informational index on spouse attributes and endowment. The investigation has been centered around examination that settlement paid is reliant on which factors Subject in the rustic subcontinent. Since the goal of study is to assess the condition clarifying the determinant of share so all the factors given in the information are takes as free and the endowment paid is taken as reliant variable. Speculations and instruments: This paper decide the determinants of share, utilizing numerous relapse examination, the creator utilized the ANOVA table, R2 incentive to arrange the determinants of endowment cost. Principle Findings: This exploration recommended that endowment paid depends on the status and the abundance of husband’s family just as the tra ining of the husband’s father that are the significant determinants of the rate of shares. The impact of husband’s father training is accounted as an indicator for the arrangement of settlement paid 6. Edlund, L. (2006). The cost of marriage: Net versus net streams and the South Asian settlement banter. Diary of the European Economic Association, 4(2†3), 542-551. Inspiration and goal : The ascent in endowment installments in India has been taken as proof that ladies progressively are off guard on the marriageâ market and must compensation for marriage. In addition, high endowments, it is contended, add to the situation of guardians of little girls and have along these lines added to the shortage of (ladies). In any case, the rationale is interested, and, this paper contends, imperfect. The term â€Å"dowry† can mean various things, and it might be helpful to recognize the benefits the lady brings at the hour of marriage (net settlement) and those got against the husband to be installments (net share). The previous is what is by and large implied by share, while the last is an idea utilized for the most part by financial experts Methods: Data are from a review overview of relationships led in 1983 by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). These information have been utilized in various investigations of South Asian share expansion. ICRISAT led a delineated arbitrary example of 40 family units each from six towns in South-focal India. The main family wedded in 1923 and the toward the end in 1978. Principle Findings: Empirically, the paper has demonstrated that in a much-utilized informational index on share expansion, net endowments didn't increment in the period after 1950, belying cases of â€Å"recent† increments. In addition, factors intended to catch marriage-crush or male comparative with female heterogeneity neglected to move endowments in the normal heading. 7. Balwick, J. (1975). The capacity of the endowment framework in a quickly modernizing society: The instance of Cyprus. Global Journal of Sociology of the Family, 158-167. Inspiration and target : The reason for this paper is to inspect the useful connection between the endowment framework and modernization for the nation of Cyprus. Two derivations attempted to be attracted this paper are endeavor to create is two 1) the settlement framework has served an inert capacity in empowering a quick pace of urban, Industrial, and mechanical improvement in Cyprus; and (2) that the fast pace of innovative advancement in Cyprus, alongside new ideas of conjugal game plan, are debilitating the significance of the share framework Methods: The examination of this paper’s subject will start by considering the capacity of the endowment framework in Traditional Greek Cypriot society, move to a thought of the capacity of the endowment framework during fast modernization, go to a thought of the impact of modernization upon the share framework, and close byâ speculating with respect to the conceivable impact which a decrease in the settlement framework will have up on marriage. Fundamental Findings: modernization is a danger to the proceeded with presence of the settlement framework. The contention was made that, other than the significant parts of modernization themselves, the idea of sentimental love, as a side-effect of a larg

Martin Luther King Jr. Essay -- American History

Martin Luther King Jr. On the main day of school, sophomore year, my history educator gave me the topic of Who is your saint? I didn’t have a legend, and up to that point I hadn’t pondered the subject. Later in the year, my eyes got a citation from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. on the notice board which expressed to some degree with this impact, Don't just be a thermometer that records the thoughts and standards of prevalent sentiment; but instead an indoor regulator that changes the mores of society. Out of the considerable number of statements that had been posted throughout the year, it was this one that grabbed my eye and caught my feeling. At the point when I would understand it, I felt as though something inside me had been started. Much to my dismay that this man whom I had come to know for the I have a fantasy discourse and social liberties would come to be my legend. In the wake of perusing Journey to Nonviolence while examining the social liberties development I became captivated in the convictions of Martin Luther King Jr. Peacefulness appeared such an extreme idea to me, yet I wound up concurring with each point that he made. The va...

Analysis of Rembrandt Essays - Joseph, Book Of Genesis, Erotic Art

Examination of Rembrandt Essays - Joseph, Book Of Genesis, Erotic Art Examination of Rembrandt Joseph Accused by Potiphar's Wife The narrative of Joseph and Potiphar's better half is told in the first book of the Bible, Genesis, section 39. Joseph was sold into servitude by his siblings and purchased by Potiphar, a high positioning official in the Pharaoh's administration. The Lord was with Joseph, what's more, gave him achievement in all that he did. This satisfied Potiphar furthermore, after a short time Joseph was given the most noteworthy situation in the family unit, and left in control when Potiphar was away. Presently Potiphar's better half saw Joseph as awesome looking and had moved toward him a few times saying come to bed with me; and Joseph taking care of business of God would not sin against his lord or the Master, so he rejected her. One day when all the workers were gone, Joseph went into the house and Potiphar's significant other moved toward him and keeping in mind that clutching his shroud said come to bed with me. Joseph won't and left the house abandoning his shroud. Potiphar' Wife shouted for help saying that Joseph had assaulted furthermore, attempted to lay down with her. At the point when her significant other got back home she told him the equivalent bogus story. Potiphar was so irate at Joseph he had him secured up Pharaoh's jail. In any case, while Joseph was in the jail, the Lord was with him. This is the topic for which Rembrandt decide to do his illustrative artistic creation by. The substance of the artistic creation all uncovers Rembrandt's translation of the story This is the record from the Bible of the allegation of Joseph by Potiphar's Wife. Rembrandt Van Ryn picked this specific story as the subject of his account painting finished in 1655, under the title of Joseph Accused By Potiphar's Wife. Before examining this artwork, I noticed my clench hand impression of Rembrandt gem. I understood through that because of my later research, my first recognition did not change, yet rather were enhanced and broadened by a freshly discovered comprehension of the man and his craft. I to a great extent focused on my first and later discernments in the structure components and standards of lighting or worth, interminable space, shading, and central point. In the wake of leading examination, my first observations about the worth, or relative level of delicacy or haziness, in the painting didn't change, yet rather I discovered that Rembrandt's utilization of light and dull was both intentional and a procedure well- known to the specialists of his time. At the point when I initially watched this painting, I thought how dim everything appeared. The main exemptions to the murkiness are the bed and Potiphar's better half, both of which are overwhelmed in light as though a spotlight were tossed on her and the bed. Some light sparkles all over furthermore, from behind him like a radiance around his body, however this light is diminish. Potiphar in incredible complexity to his significant other is nearly in complete dimness. I previously felt there ought to be all the more light from maybe candles to cast the whole room in halfway light. Be that as it may after research I found that Rembrandt preferred solid differentiations of light and dim and utilized them in his works of art for his entire life, letting murkiness shroud pointless subtleties while utilizing light to bring figures and items out from the shadows. The high difference of light against dim changed a normal scene into a sensational one ... the Italian word for this utilization of light and dull [is] chiaroscuro (Muhlberger 9). Rembrandt more likely than not accepted that an excess of detail in the room would have darkened the essential players of this scene. He utilizes light to brilliantly enlighten the most notable individual in this work of art, Potiphar's significant other. In slipping request of significance, Rembrandt puts a shine around Joseph and throws Potiphar in a practically all out obscurity. I presently am ready to perceive how the complexity of light and dull illustrates radically this urgent defining moment in Joseph's life. The truth that an Italian word exists for Rembrandt's lighting method just demonstrates the procedure's foundation in the craftsmanship world he lived and worked in. Because of research, my clench hand discernments about the nearness of limitless space in the artistic creation didn't change, yet rather I increased a comprehension of why Rembrandt utilized this specific method in his artistic creation. I initially saw previously leading any exploration on Rembrandt or this canvas how the dividers seem to go on uncertainly; there are no limits to the room. What's more the craftsman decided not to add and subtleties to the dividers or floor. I accept that the plan component of limitless space, perpetual space as found in nature,

Animal use in Medical Research

The utilization of creatures in clinical looks into has spared and furthermore improved the nature of lives of numerous individuals and creatures also. Meds, methods and systems right now utilized in diagnosing and relieving maladies have been made simpler by utilizing creatures in research.This has extraordinarily assisted with seeing how the body functions. The vast majority of these inquires about are led in colleges, emergency clinics and different establishments to discover fixes that decrease the passing of people and simultaneously the creatures themselves (Understanding Animal Research, 2010).Initially, most passings were happened because of contaminations and infections and it was not until 1900 that improvements were made to stop the passings because of the presentation of creature testing (Understanding Animal Research, 2010).Major clinical forward leaps, for example, the disclosure of sedation, counterfeit breath, germ hypothesis and the revelation of the AIDS causing inf ection have been shown up at because of creature testing (Understanding Animal Research, 2010). Clinical research that utilizes creatures ought to be proceeded as it helps in sparing lives.Use of creatures for clinical research is unfeeling and immoralDissection of creatures is otherwise called vivisection which should either be possible either to a limited extent or totally and later the discoveries utilized in clinical research (Monamy, 2000).Alternatively, creature responses to various substances can be observed from their conduct. In his exploration, Monamy perceives the utilization of creatures in directing investigations in medication fields, for example, brain research, physiology, science and upgrades in clinical technology.However, basic entitlements activists consider activities incurred to creatures during the time spent research as a type of pitilessness, naming the activities as against the ethical commitments of individuals to creatures. Basic entitlements campaigners guarantee that creatures have moral rights and in this manner it isn't right for individuals to utilize them for trial purposes (White, 2008).The discoveries of examination on the profound quality of creatures shows that an ethically extensive animal as one that can be ethically wronged. This is a capacity that is summed up to be controlled by people regardless of there being no away from of some other creature with a similar capacity (Stanford reference book of theory, 2003).According to Stanford reference book of reasoning, a case that individuals are more ethically capable than creatures awards them the capacity to settle on choices that influence the two creatures and people (2003). Additionally, this makes the individuals liable for exercises that improve the poise of all types of life on earth.It has prompted the advancement of procedures and substances that guarantee that life is livable for both human and non-people. In the light of this view, defenders of creature testing h ave kept on refering to this as an explanation behind the execution of creature testing.In differentiate, there has been a disclosure of creatures showing sentiments, particularly primates. They have social ties with one another. This was found by their capacities to show feelings when one of them passed on in the wake of being discouraged (2003). Different creatures also have been demonstrated to exhibit high degrees of mental advancement (White, 2008).In his book, Contemporary Moral Problems† White cases that this contention agrees them the ethical option to be regarded and not to be utilized in tests. Winged creatures, for example, parrots, mynahs and jaybirds are believed to be intellectually skillful (2008, pp. 347).More supporters of basic entitlements guarantee that creatures have innate worth. Consequently, they accept that each animal has the will to carry on with its life liberated from torment or enduring like the one that might be brought about by clinical tests (S inger, 1975).All creatures are qualified for comparable contemplations taking into account their ability to be alive (Singer, 1975). In his book named â€Å"Animal freedom: another morals for our treatment of animals† Singer clarifies that the limit of certain creatures of the gathering of higher vertebrates to feel torment must not be disregarded. He relates it to the capacity of people to feel the equivalent and henceforth the need to regard moral privileges of animals.According to Singer, the way that individuals keep on agreeing moral regard to impeded people and those considered to have lost their ability for what is viewed as good rights, is being out of line to creatures. He includes that â€Å"lack of good rigths† has prompted creatures being butchered for food and continously utilized in clinical examinations (1975).

Internet Analysis Essay - 825 Words

Internet Analysis (Essay Sample) Content: Internet AnalysisName:Institution:Budgets cuts have had massive retrogressive effects on the country at large. However, the most affected sector has been the justice systems in all the American states. California, however, has borne the most damaging effects of the budgets cuts to the justice systems (Donatello, 2012). This means that most of the justice services that most of the citizens had access to in the state of California, are now not as accessible. The courts and other legal offices are forced to dial down on some services, leading to poor delivery along the corridor of justice. Currently, the justice systems of California have to deal with the crisis in the best ways they can and try to avert the detrimental effects to the state and the citizens (Robert, 2013).Amanda Robert, in his article coined the "California courts continue cuts, closuresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , tries to bring out the elements of the justice crisis subjects to the budget cuts in the last few year s. In the article, the author states that there has been more than $1 billion dollars in budgets cuts to the justice system, in the last five years, a status that is confirmed by the Judicial Council of California. At the same time, the courts have lost more than 65% of their funding which used to come from the General Funds of the state. This details the massive cuts that have gone into the court systems and are bound to have some detrimental effects on the delivery of services to the citizens of the state of California. Over the same period of time, there have been more than 22 court houses that have been closed, 114 courtrooms have also been closed, while more than 30 courts in the state have cut down on the number of hours they can work relative to the poor funding scheme (Robert, 2013).According to the article, the Los Angeles county court, which happens to be the largest court system in the state, is also experiencing some of the most detrimental effects (Robert, 2013). The co urt recently announced that it would get rid of some 500 positions as it tries to cut down on the spending relative to the amount money it is receiving. This is bound to have massive effects on the justice delivery in the state, given the relevance of the court to the court systems of the state. When the positions were eliminated, more than 117 persons lost their employment, more than 139 were demoted to the positions that they held earlier and more than 223 had to be reassigned to other areas across the state to distribute the cost of running the justice system (Dolan, 2011). The court also made indications that it going to make sure that it reduces more than 24% of all of the positions that were budgetary allocated, before following the budget cuts that started in 2008 on the eve of world economic crisis. Other than closing courthouses and rooms, the court is also going to see to it that they eliminate the court reporters within the civil courts as well as doing away with the refe rees within the juvenile courts (Schwartz, 2014).Following the economic crashes of 2008, there were losses in the amount of income collected from real estates and at the same time the government was not in a position to raise money to replenish the general fund. A the funding dwindled in 2009 to 2011, the court systems were forced to cut down on the cost of running their business including laying off some of the staff, freezing employment and borrowing from the reserves to offset the balances left behind by the budgets cuts. As a result, the current state of the courts is deplorable. Most of the courts do not have judges and several of the courthouses and rooms are still closed, prompting some of the courts to use the trial courts to beat the budget cuts while still trying to offer quality services (Donatello, 2012). However, these cuts have come at the expense of the citizens as they now have to drive around much longer as they look for a court house to presents their cases. When o ne does find a court house, they have to wait for long hours to be attended as there are long queues from all over the counties. According to the author of the article, the budgets may have been necessary, but the manner in which they were carried out still leaves a lot to be desired (McCarthy, 2011). This is to means that, after the 2008 economic crisis, it was inevitable to cut down on the budget allocation in the various sectors of the economy. However, the justice system is one of the most crucial sectors in the economy, more so when the economy is not doing so well (Dolan, 2011). The budgets cuts which were well intended, have now been overdone and killing the justice system over time by reducing the efficiency and quality of services. The author recommends that there should be more funds to the courts to increase the level of efficiency and avoid running the justice system around.I conclude that the budgets cuts in the case of California have...

Ck Fashion Advertising Major Project - Free Essay Example

Abigail Santy Rachel Content Page Page 1 Introduction Page 2 History of Calvin Klein Page 3 History of CK Underwear Page 4 Information on CK Underwear Page 5-6 Situational Analysis Page 7-9 Competitor’s analysis Page 10-11 Target Market Page 12-13 Analysis of Present Campaign Page 14-15 Strategy Brief Page 16-18 Creative Brief Page 19 Proposed Campaign Page 20 Media Plan Page 21-25 Campaign Ads Page 26 Unique Selling Preposition Page 27 Desired Consumer Response Page 28 Implementation Evaluation Page 29 Brief Summary of Proposed Campaign Page 30 Bibliography Introduction: Objectives In the industry of underwear, Calvin Klein Underwear can be viewed as one of the top few underwear brands that are present in this industry for many years. Even though Calvin Klein are famous in the area of it’s underwear, more needs to be done in order for it to sustain itself in the industry as there is an increase in the number of underwear companies and as such, Calvin Klein underwear needs to become even more creative and innovative in it’s products and advertising so as to gain more customers in the long run. As advertising is a form of communication used by companies as a way to help improve the sales of the products, Calvin Klein Underwear thus needs to create a new concept of advertisements so as to gain competitive advantage against it’s competitors in order to maintain it’s status and position in the industry. Thus, the objective of this project is to suggest an advertising campaign that will enable the company to not only further increase the awareness of the brand, but at the same time continually remind the customers of it’s brand in order to increase the sales of the products in order to improve the overall conditions of the company. History of Calvin Klein Calvin Klein is one of the fashion world’s biggest brands for their designer jeans, underwear and the wholesome, all- America look. Calvin Klein born in the year 1942, taught himself to sketch and sew as a boy. Later on, he went to New York’s high School of Art and Design and the Fashion Inst itute of technology and finally launching his own label , with the partnership of Barry Schwartz. Calvin Klein was listed as one of the America’s 25 most influential people by Time, he had shaped the casual wear industry and played a key role in modern advertising. Since then , he caused a storm of controversy when he had Richard Avedon photograph a pubescent Brooke Shields for his 1979 jeans campaign under the slogan â€Å" you know what come between me and my Calvins? Nothing. † Kate Moss later was to follow, helped launched his unisex perfume ck one. In October 1999, Klein was announced considering selling his fashion house, which shocked the fashion world again. And it was confirmed that he had taken his $1 billion fashion house off the market. 2 History of CK Underwear Calvin Klein underwear was formed in the year 1982 and it is known as the world’s finest designer for men and women. Men’s underwear suddenly became an object of desire. Calvin klein then publish new advertising campaigns which communicated the message of the updated, sexy designer sensibility that distinguish ck underwear from the others. In the year 1983, women’s line followed. The brand has also delivered a new line including basics, basics in fashion colors, as well as fashion forward, trendy underwear to the stores each season since then. Calvin Klein is also known for its quality, fits and fabrications are developed to perfection to preserve the brand standard of excellence. Men’s fabric range from comfortable cottons to edgy sheer synthetics, while women products includes foundations with clean and comfortable silhouettes, daywear with sexy lace elements and satin touches, as well as fashion trend forward prints and styles. Calvin Klein underwear brand is so successful that advertising spans 21 countries and reaches to an estimated number of 98 million people globally. 3 Information on CK Underwear Products Men’s: Bottoms: Bikini briefs, boxer briefs, boxers, gripper/cycle shorts, hip briefs, sport, thongs and trunks Tops: Long sleeve t-shirts, muscle shirts and tank tops Sleepwear Women’s: Bras: Balconnet, convertible, padded, push up, plunge, racerbacks, soft cop, t-shirt/contour, underwire, wireless, petite and full fit Panties: Panties, boyshorts, thongs and tangas Tops: Pants and shorts, slips and sleepwear Both men and women’s mostly priced from S$50 and above Orchard Road and City Link Mall. Stores are located centrally and it’s store concept is that of minimalism. Advertising is done through print media such as in magazines and posters that is pasted at store front. Price Place Promotion 4 Situational Analysis: The Company Financial Situation: In the year 2009, it can be noted that the world in general suffers from an economic problem which is that of the recession and as a result of it, many fashion retailers in the industries are affected by this situation in many ways. As stated by Shields (2009), it can be noted that the economy conditions have affected Calvin Klein in terms of it’s net sales which fell from $561 million to that of the current $529. million dollars. Besides this, it can be noted that the royalty, advertising and other revenues in the second quarter of 2009 had decreased by 10. 9% causing the revenue to drop to $71. 9 million as compared to the previous year second quarter of $80. 7 million. In the area of Calvin Klein Licensing segment, the royalty revenue decreased 6% for the second quarter, due to the decrease in a constant exchange rates resulting in the sales reduction in the fragrance business, which continues to be affected by the reductions in travel and discretionary spending. In terms of advertising, it can be viewed that Calvin Klein’s advertising and other revenue decreased $4. 1 million in the second quarter of 2009 as compared to that of the previous year due to the result of lesser discretionary spending in 2009 as compared to 2008 by Calvin Klein’s licensees. As a result of this, it can be noted that advertising and other revenue is collected and spend as both a revenue and an expense within Calvin Klein’s income statement (Phillipsvan Heusen Corp. Reports Operating Results, 2009). 5 Situational Analysis: The Company Brand Positioning: The brand positioning of Calvin Klein as a company and brand in general can be viewed as a form of â€Å"modern, practical fashion and minimalist chic†, which resulted in the encompassing of the lifestyle of fashion, thus the creation enlarging of the brand’s collection from the Calvin Klein Collection for the men, women and the home, CK for men and women, CK Jeans for men, women and kids, CK Underwear as well as beauty and cosmetics lines. Through this, it can be noted that Calvin Klein is a brand that is diverse in the product range thus able to gain hold of a higher market share in the industry. Though the brand may be known for being a â€Å"modern, practical fashion and minimalist chic†, the brand positioning changes in terms of advertising. In the world of advertising, Calvin Klein can be viewed as a brand that uses sex appeal to draw interest to the particular product range, in order to increase the sales of the products advertised. In some instances, sex appeals have been viewed as overly-used by Calvin Klein in terms of it’s advertisements campaign as some of the adverts that uses sex in the advertising are viewed as irrelevant to the product being advertised thus showing no connections at all. As such, over the years, Calvin Klein’s advertising campaigns are widely known for it’s controversial and provocative images, as seen in the three images here. In recent times, the top image, which is the adverts for the Calvin Klein Jeans 2009 campaign, have received tremendous news and reports with regards to the adverts and with some stating that it is considered to be a form of â€Å"soft pornography† as with the recent article on Fox News. Through this, it can be viewed that Calvin Klein can be viewed as a brand that uses shock value and controversy which will raise issues in order to gain publicity. Competitor’s Analysis: Emporio Armani AIDA MODEL: The AIDA model is being used to evaluate how advertising works. In this case, the Awareness level of this campaign is being raised as viewers would quickly recognized the male model as David Beckham the famous soccer player. The interest level is being developed when both female and male audiences are able to view Beckham’s body in only briefs and underwear which is not widely seen of photos taken of him. As such, the general audience would be curious to view these campaign images as a result of this. The desire and action level would be done when the target audience would want to either have the image of Beckham for the male audiences and for the female audiences, actions would be taken when they purchase Emporio Armani’s underwear for their boyfriends. As such, it can be viewed that with the use of David Beckham as a model, Armani is thus able to capture the target audiences which will in turn help to raise awareness and thus increase the sales of this product range. 7 Competitor’s Analysis: Dolce Gabbana AIDA Model: The awareness level of this campaign is raised through the brand’s name and as there has been a rise in the number of sports competition such as the Olympics and Youth Olympics, the audience of this campaign would be able to identify the message that it is trying to portray easily. The interest level of the audience would be due to the current ongoing events and rise in the number of water sports activities and these underwear adverts would target such groups of individuals and therefore, interest would be raised through this. Besides this, these group of male models are young muscular males who will be able to raise the attention of sportsmen, women as well as men who like sports. As such, interest is being raised through the portrayal of the underwear in a setting at the pool with a group of male models. The desire level can be achieved in the sight of the audience as males would want to look as fabulous as these male models portrayed in these campaign images and for women, they would like their boyfriend or husband to look the same as these group of male models. In order for the campaign to be seen as effective, the targeted audience must take the action in the purchasing of the DKNY underwear and in this case, the three images of the campaign reveals of three different styles of underwear grouped together, which shows of the different colors of the same design. Thus, the targeted audience are able to view these products and make their selections even before they enter into the store. 8 Competitor’s Analysis: DKNY AIDA Model: The awareness of this campaign can be viewed in terms of the knowledge of the brand in the eyes of the audience. Besides this,erotism is also used in the DKNY campaign seen above to grasp the attention of the audience. The capturing of the attention of the audience in order to raise the interest level can be seen through the way the campaign images is being taken. Unlike normal underwear ads, DKNY use of different angle shots create a new dimension to the brand’s campaign and therefore it may raise interest from the point of the viewers. The desire level on the part of the target audience would be the desire to want to have similar body shape and mass which will lead to these group of target audience to want to fulfill their innate desire of having a great body thus leading to them taking the action of purchasing the DKNY underwear in order to satisfy their innate desire of wanting to look muscular and macho. 9 Target Market : Demographics Age Group: †¢The age group of the target market of CK Underwear would be individuals between the age of 20 to the late 30s. Occupation: †¢The most likely occupation of the target market would be that of individuals who are young urban professionals with a white collar jobs. †¢Besides the working individuals, students make up a certain percentage of the entire target market. Education level: †¢The education level of the target market can be considerably high and they may have attained a diploma and above type of certificate of learning. Income level: †¢The income level of these individuals would be considered as from a middle income level status. The target market would also have a middle level of disposable and discretionary income that they received from either their work or from their allowances in the case of students. 10 Target Market: Psychographics Physical Features: †¢The individuals of CK Underwear target market would be considered as individuals who loves grooming and presenting themselves well. †¢They are individuals who will work out do whatever they can to present themselves with a good physical features. †¢Physical features can be considered as a major elements of their pride. Attitudes towards fashion: †¢This group of individuals can be viewed as individuals who is trendy and who follows the trends and the events and happenings of the fashion industry so as to stay in tune and not be seen as out of fashion. †¢They are also considered as individuals who are brand conscious and as a result, they may seek their identity in the brands that they wear. Spending habits: †¢This group of individuals are individuals who do not mind spending more in order to get products that provide comfort and style. They can be considered as individuals who are the splurger as they are conscious of brands and would prefer to buy luxury items rather than necessity goods. 11 Analysis of Present Campaign Analysis of the Campaign: The current campaign for CK Underwear for males would be that of the images seen above. Calvin Klein Underwear has used a male model, Jamie Dornan, who is an up and rising male model in the modeling industry as well as the fashion industry. B esides this, he is also named the male version of Kate Moss in both the GQ as well as ‘The Golden Torso’ by The New York Times according to London Evening Standard, 2009. As such, this can display CK Underwear as a brand that not only brings forth the best in it’s advertising campaign to promote it’s products, it can be viewed as a brand that understands the industry and trends well. This would indeed not only enhance the image of the brand as a contemporary brand with a conscious mind of the happenings of the fashion industry, it can also be viewed as a brand that values uprising individuals and give them the opportunity to gain experience. Besides this adverts, Jamie Dornan is also being used by CK Underwear to help promote it’s underwear competition and as such, it can be viewed that this advertising campaign would go hand in hand with the competition which will bring forth a fresh idea and concept when competing with it’s competitors. 12 Analysis of Present Campaign Information on the campaign: In 2009, Calvin Klein Underwear has held a 8 Countries 9 Men Competition with the collaboration with model, Jamie Dornan. Jamie Dornan, the current male model for CK Underwear 2009 ad campaign, will be guiding the contestants throughout the contest. The contest is a form of marketing and advertising campaign as it is a platform used to promote the new additions of the underwear line, which is that of the â€Å"steel† range which will include the flags from the nine countries (France, England, Sweden, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Russia and Spain) that would be participating in the male model competition. This campaign would last for a span of few months. This competition would be held in a way that the 9 finalists chosen will compete with each other in the Grand Finale which would in May 2010. The eward of this competition would be that the winner will be determined by the public vote and will be awarded a luxury trip to South Africa, while the eight runner up will be able to receive a one-year supply of CK Underwear products. Analysis of the campaign: Firstly, this campaign can be viewed as different from it’s competitors as it is a competition which will attract the target market to follow with the progre ss of this competition. As this competition involves 9 countries, the involving countries would follow closely with the competition and give their support for their representative models as it will involve their national pride. As such, the campaign would draw many to view the campaign and at the same time, it will raise brand awareness and remind the audience of the development of CK Underwear and eventually promote sales and awareness for the newest product. 13 Strategy Brief Objectives: The objectives of this campaign that is being proposed is to be able to attract the awareness of the target market, to remind the loyal and current customers about the promises of CK Underwear and it’s brand image and lastly, to be able to generate sales through the proposed campaign. Strategies: The strategies of this campaign would be the plan required to accomplish the objectives set out for this campaign. The strategies of this campaign can be divided into different segments. This segments consists of the key strategic campaign decision, the media strategy plan, the message strategy, other tools required to support the campaign as well as the campaign management. 1. Key Strategic Campaign decisions †¢ The target audience of this campaign would be directly on it’s loyal customers and potential customers. The brand positioning would retain it’s current brand positioning of being controversial and provocative, while at the same time, it would provide a competitive advantage to the brand due to it’s unique features of the adverts. 2. Media Strategy Plan †¢ The media selection of this campaign would be one that best suit the campaign as well as the place that is more prominent to the target audience and at areas that will seek the mos t attention of these individuals. The scheduling of the media plan would be viewed in terms of the situations or events that is happening in the area of the vehicle of the media used and in Singapore in general. 3. Message Strategy †¢ The message of the campaign will be viewed in terms of the key consumer outlook of the brand as well as the potential behavior of the campaign. †¢The objectives of the message would be to speak to the audience that even though CK Underwear is moving forward in terms of it’s products, the brand still retains it’s brand outlook while at the same time, displays the versatile nature of CK Underwear. The message of the campaign is designed to be similar to the past campaigns so as to bring forth a sense of reminiscence in the minds of the targeted audience, while at the same time, the adverts will spark off a whole new message which is that of the product being versatile and the adverts still consist of provocative and controversial impression. 14 Strategy Brief Strategies: 4. Campaign Management †¢The evaluation of the effectiveness of the campaign can be seen with the increase in sales of the products being advertised. The budget of the campaign would be $30, 000 to cover all the costs incurred in the carrying out of the campaign. Tactics: 1. Message of the Campaign †¢ As the brand is always known for it’s controversial and provocative portrayal of the models in the adverts, it is therefore an advantage for CK Underwear to use this situation as it’s brand positioning. However, besides the use of only sexual appeal in the adverts, the campaign should include thought-incurring images that will left a deep impression in the minds of the audiences. 2. Media Selection †¢In order to ensure that the media selected for the campaign is targeted at the target audience, surveys can be done by surveyor to determine the usual places that the target audience would frequent in order to ensure the adverts are place in the right place so as to be cost effective and effective in reaching out to the target audience in the most efficient way as well. †¢The schedules of the media placement would be determined by the gathering of the information of special events that is taking place in Singapore such as the Great Singapore Sale during the period of May-July 2010. As this period of time would be a season of sales, it would be suitable for the advertising campaign to start in the month of March so as to gather as much awareness of the brand and sales of the new products before the sales period begins. 3. Campaign Evaluation †¢In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the campaign with regards to the awareness level, surveys can be done in the middle of the campaign so as to determine if the campaign is reaching out it’s target audience to a high or a low degree. Besides this, the calculation of the sales increment of the products promoted in the adverts can be compared against either the previous adverts products or on products not advertised so as to determine if the adverts did result in the increase of sales of the products advertised. 15 Creative Brief Problem: †¢The current problem faced by CK Underwear would be that of having lots of impact through it’s advertising campaign which displays of controversial and provocative messages that either attracts or create a negative view from the society due to the issue of sexuality presented in the adverts. However, though CK Underwear and it’s other bridge lines of Calvin Klein received considerably high level of impact, it can be viewed that the impact did not translate to higher sales as reflected in the financial situations of the company as a whole. Target Audience: †¢Demographics: The demographics of the targeted audience for the campaign would be mainly men and a p ortion of women who will buy boxers for males. These group of individuals will be between the age of 20 to late 30s individuals. These individuals may be possibly be a young urban professionals, sportsman or even a student. They are considered to be welleducated. nd have a middle range disposable income and discretionary income which is suitable to purchase CK Underwear as the products are priced at an affordable price range. †¢Psychographics: The psychographics of the targeted audience for the campaign would be men who loves grooming and presenting themselves well. Besides this, they care about the comfort of what they wear and as such, they would not mind paying more for comfortable and beautiful underwear. These individuals may be brand conscious and is a follower of fashion. The individual may also be individuals who love seeing their girlfriend in their clothing. Besides this, this group of target audience are viewed as more open to new ideas and concepts, and would not be easily offended by images that is controversial and provocative. †¢Consumer Behavior: In terms of the spending habits of the targeted audience, it can be viewed that the targeted audience falls under the category of the hunter, one who takes risk to get ahead and is aggressive about money, equating it with happiness and achievement; the splurger, one who is selfindulgent, prefers to buy lxury items and is self-centered and lastly; the striver, who believes that money makes the world go round, and thus equates money with power. 6 Creative Brief Brand Position: †¢ Brand Positioning: In order to maintain the brand positioning of being controversial and provocative so as to maintain it’s competitive advantage, it is therefore important to include both elements into the campaign. In order to be controversial, thought-incurring images should be included and in th is case, a female model is use to promote a male boxer shorts. To be provocative, sexual appeals is required so that the brand would maintain it’s positioning and make the adverts more appealing to it’s target audience. When CK Underwear was first started in the year 1982 for male underwear, it has received many loyal customers due to the success of it’s adverts and in this campaign, elements of the previous adverts would be included into the campaign so as to remind it’s loyal customers that CK Underwear is still promising the same promise to it’s customers. Communication Objectives: †¢ Message of the campaign: The message of the campaign is to not only speak to the targeted audience, but at the same time, it is also to create a specific response to the message by the target audience. In this campaign, the adverts messages would be to allow the customers and it’s target audience to be able to find an edge with the image of the adverts while at the same time, recapturing the image and spur the reminiscence of the previous CK Underwear and reputation into the minds of the viewers so as to not only create the response of the purchasing of the products advertised, but also to create a response which is that of the increase in the the loyalty of the customers and through this, there will be changes of word-of-mouth promotions done by our target audience. Proposition/ Selling Idea: †¢ Selling Idea: The selling idea of the campaign would be based on the images of the female model wearing of the male boxer shorts, it can be seen that the boxer shorts can be viewed as versatile and comfortable to the extend that a female can wear the shorts, it would make the boxer shorts more appealing to the targeted audience. 17 Creative Brief Media Considerations: †¢ Where the message will be delivered: The advertisements images of the campaign would be placed in print media such as magazines and posters. Magazines are a good way of advertising as it has itself created it’s own target market and as such, CK Underwear adverts would be effective in reaching out to it’s target market if it’s placed at the magazines that the target audience frequently read. Print media such as the posters are useful in many ways. Posters for this campaign would be placed in store front, billboards, newsstand, bus stops and even underpass of shopping centres. Creative Directions: †¢ Image of the adverts in the campaign: The image of the adverts would be that of a female model in a boyfriend’s shirt and CK boxer shorts for men. The feel of the entire image portrayed would be that of a ‘out-of-bed’ kind of look, but with the model still on a bed so as to reflect the idea that the model has just woke up and is seen wearing the boyfriend’s shirt and boxer shorts which also symbolizes the after sex image. Besides this, some other images of the adverts would portray the model’s boxer shorts being tugged and pulled at a man which can only be seen with the back of the body therefore emphasizing the fact that the boxers does not belong to the female portrayed in the adverts. Besides this, the female model used for this campaign would be a woman with an androgyny feel so as to give off an image of manliness to the entire feel of the CK boxer shorts. The female model used for this adverts would be that of an Asian female as there have been a strong emphasis on European models through the 9 Countries 9 Men CK Underwear Competition. As such, a fresh look and face is required so as to create a whole new feel to the entire campaign while retaining it’s brand image. 8 Proposed Campaign Message Design and Execution: †¢Message design: The message of the adverts campaign would be the slogan, â€Å"Nothing comes between me and his Calvins†. The reason why this slogan would be used is to ignite similar feeling of the 1990s concept of â€Å"Nothing comes between me and my Calvins†. This slogan is used in the past to show that Calvin Klein’s products are a part of the individual and nothing would come between the consumer and the produ cts. As such, this would create loyalty in the consumers as the brand is portrayed as personal to them. In this instance, the slogan would be twisted in a way that though the same feeling would be presented in the adverts, the use of a female wearing a boxer shorts and feeling comfortable about it would meant that the product is versatile as well as comfortable. †¢Message Execution: The message of the dverts can be carried out through getting the model to display ease and comfort when wearing the boxer shorts and at the same time, being masculine and having an attitude about it. Media: †¢Media selection: The media that will be used for this campaign would be that of the print media of magazines and posters. Posters will be situated at areas in Orchard Road such as placing it on a lamp stand near the road, newsstand, bus stand, underpass and in shopping malls itself. Campaign Budget: †¢Budget: The budget for this campaign adverts would be $30,000. As this campaign is new in the sense that it is the first time an Asian female will be used for the campaign adverts, and also the first time a female model would be promoting for a male underwear, it can be viewed that more coverage is required to reach as many of the targeted audiences as possible so as to not only create an impact, but also to push for actions in the sense of the purchasing of the products by the consumers. 19 Media Plan February 2010 1. Finalist of 9 Countries 9 Men announced 2. Start of the new advertising campaign March 2010 1. Launching of the advertising campaign in Print Media such as magazines like Style: Men etc. April 2010 1. Continuation of adverts in Print Media 2. Start of the placement of adverts in underpass of Orchard, placement of banners on road lamps and buildings 1. May 2010 Placement of adverts in shopping malls, bus stands, newsstands and continuation of the placement of adverts in magazines. 20 Campaign Ads 21 Outdoor Campaign 22 Outdoor Campaign 23 Outdoor Campaign 24 Campaign Ads 25 Unique Selling Preposition The unique features of these adverts can be seen as that it gives a whole new look to the entire advertising campaign for CK Underwear and even to the entire industry’s underwear advertising. This is because a female model is being used to promote for a product that is rightfully for males. As such, this would attract the attention of not only the male target audiences, but the female audiences curiosity would be raised as to why a female would be wearing a male’s boxer shorts instead of a female boxer shorts. Besides this, the female model used differs from the past campaigns and from it’s competitors in that it uses an Asian model instead of the usual European or American model and this would captures the attention of not only the Asian market, but the European and American market as well. This is because the consumers are used to having a Caucasian female or male as a model, and as such, in order to bring about fresh ideas and images, Asian models may be able to help to bring forth this concept and thus this is unique as it is not frequently seen in the market. The slogan would be part of the unique selling preposition as compared to competitors such as DKNY, D G and Emporio Armani, they do not have any slogan with regards to the underwear lines in their advertising and as such, by having a slogan, CK Underwear would be able to communicate directly with the targeted audience and thus create better understanding of the concept of the brand as well as the adverts. 26 Desired Consumer Response The most important element of advertising is to be able to get the target audience to response in a few ways. Firstly, through this advertising campaign, CK Underwear aims to be able to raise the awareness of the it’s target audience and potential target audience to the new products that is being launched. Besides wanting to create an awareness through the advertising with regards to the products being advertised (which is the boxer shorts), the advertising campaign is also aimed at reminding the consumers of the brand and it’s promise through the slogans. As such, this advertising campaign aims to be a platform for CK Underwear to be able to gain consumers support and increase the loyalty of it’s current customers and thus, the desired consumer response of this advertising campaign would be to persuade the targeted audience and consumers to make purchases of the products when they see the adverts. Secondly, the advertising campaign also seeks to create an impact in the industry and strengthen it’s brand positioning of being controversial through the fact that a female is wearing a male underwear and the feeling of being provocative through the use of emale model who gives an image of sexuality and at the same time, an androgyny look in order to portray the masculinity of the brand. Thus, as this is being portrayed and carried out in the adverts, there will be concerns from the public with regards to the adverts and as such, this will lead to the consumer to response in either a positive or negative responses such as medi a’s report of the advertising campaign which will help to promote the brand as well. 27 Implementation Evaluation Implementation: This advertising campaign will be implemented in Singapore as well as in European market in order to create a similar feel and build consistency with regards to the brand image as well as the advertising messages. †¢This series of adverts would be carried out during the period of February 2010 to May 2010. †¢The sequences of the setting up of the media plan would be done accordingly to the media plan. †¢The launch of the product which is that of the CK Underwear Boxer Shorts would be in line with the launch of the new advertising campaign. Evaluation: There are various ways in which the campaign can be evaluated. †¢The campaign will be evaluated based on the level of awareness of the adverts and this can be done through surveying of the target audience during the month of March-April 2010 to determine if the campaign is effecti ve in reaching out to it’s target market. †¢To determine if the message of the adverts is suitable or vice versa, CK Underwear marketing team would need to keep a lookout on the internet with regards to any negative or positive comments of the adverts in the forums or on the news. As the aim of an adverts is to increase the sales of it’s advertised product, there is a need to analyze if the campaign have helped to fulfill the objectives as stated in the strategy brief. This can be done by comparing the product’s revenue between the period from February-May 2010 with other products that is not being advertised. As the product is being launched in the same period as the advertising campaign, it is therefore easier to determine the effectiveness of the campaign through the analysis of the revenue earned. 28 Brief Summary of Proposed Campaign Time Frame of Campaign: †¢ Launch of campaign: The campaign would be launched on the 1st of February 2010 in conjunction with the announcement of the finalist for the 9 Countries 9 Men CK Underwear competition. †¢Duration of campaign: The duration of the campaign would be 4 months as it will be carried out from February to May 2010. Budget of the Campaign: †¢The budget of the campaign would be $30,000 as the new launch of product and concept of using an Asian model would require more exposure than usual form of adverts. Overall feel of the Campaign ads: The overall feel of the adverts of this campaign would be to bring about a sense of comfort when the model wears the underwear and at the same, sexuality is being used to give off a sexy feeling to the entire image while the androgyny feature of the model would add in the masculine elements to the entire concept. Media: †¢The media that will be used for this campaign would be that of print media such as the magazin es and posters which will be placed in newsstand, bus stops stand, underpass of shopping malls, banners on road lamps and buildings and also the placement of banners in shopping malls itself. 9 Bibliography 1. ?Phillipsvan Heusen Corp. Reports Operating Results (10-Q)? 2009. Guru Focus. Retrieved: September 11, 2009, from https://www. gurufocus. com/news. php? id=68971 2. ?Calvin Klein Threesome Ad Draws Oohs, Aahs and Protests? 2009. Fox News. Retrieved: September 11, 2009 from https://www. foxnews. com/story/0,2933,526491,00. html 3. Eyre, H. ?The Male Kate Moss: Jamie Dornan?. London Evening Standard. Retrieved: September 11, 2009 from: https://www. thisislondon. co. uk/fashion/article-23740356-details/The+male+Kate+Moss:+Jamie+Dornan/ article. do 30

Timeline of the Medieval Traders on the Swahili Coast

Based on archaeological and historical data, the medieval period of the 11th through 16th centuries AD was the heyday of Swahili Coast trading communities. But that data has also shown that the African merchants and sailors of the Swahili Coast began to  trade in international goods at least 300-500 years earlier. A timeline of the major events on the Swahili coast: Early 16th century, the  arrival of Portuguese and the end of Kilwas trading powerCa 1400 start of Nabhan dynasty1331, Ibn Battuta visits Mogadishu14th-16th centuries, a shift in trade to the  Indian Ocean, the heyday of coastal Swahili townsCa 1300, the  start of Mahdali dynasty (Abul Mawahib)Ca 1200, first coins minted by Ali bin al-Hasan in Kilwa12th century, a rise of Mogadishu11th-12th centuries, most coastal people converted to Islam, a shift in trade to the  Red Sea11th century, start of Shirazi dynasty9th century, slave trade with the  Persian Gulf8th century, the first mosque built6th-8th centuries AD, trade established with Muslim traders40 AD, author of Periplus visits Rhapta The Ruling Sultans A chronology of ruling sultans can be derived from the Kilwa Chronicle, two undated medieval documents recording an oral history of the large Swahili capital of Kilwa. Scholars are skeptical of its accuracy, however, particularly with respect to the semi-mythical Shirazi dynasty: but they are agreed on the existence of several important sultans: Ali ibn al-Hasan (11th century)Daud ibn al-HasanSulaiman ibn al-Hasan (early 14th c)Daud ibn Sulaiman (early 14th c)al-Hasan ibn Talut (ca 1277)Muhammad ibn Sulaimanal-Hasan ibn Sulaiman (ca 1331, visited by Ibn Battuta)Sulaiman ibn al-Husain (14th c) Pre  or Proto-Swahili The earliest pre or proto-Swahili sites date to the first century AD, when the unnamed Greek sailor who authored the merchants guide Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, visited Rhapta on what is today the central Tanzanian coast. Rhapta was reported in the Periplus to be under the rule of Maza on the Arabian Peninsula. The Periplus reported that ivory, rhinoceros horn, nautilus and turtle shell, metal implements, glass, and foodstuffs were imports available in Rhapta. Finds of Egypt-Roman and other Mediterranean imports dated to the last few centuries BC suggest some contact with those areas. By the 6th to 10th centuries AD, people on the coast were living in mostly rectangular earth-and-thatch houses, with household economies based on pearl millet agriculture, cattle pastoralism, and fishing. They smelted iron, built boats and made what archaeologists called Tana Tradition or Triangular Incised Ware pots; they obtained imported goods such as glazed ceramics, glassware, metal jewelry, and stone and glass beads from the Persian Gulf. Beginning in the 8th century, the African inhabitants had converted to Islam. Archaeological excavations at Kilwa Kisiwani and Shanga in Kenya have demonstrated that these towns were settled as early as the 7th and 8th centuries. Other prominent sites of this period include Manda in northern Kenya, Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar and Tumbe on Pemba. Islam and Kilwa The earliest mosque on the Swahili coast is located in the town of Shanga in the Lamu Archipelago. A timber mosque was built here in the 8th century AD, and rebuilt in the same location, again and again, each time larger and more substantial. Fish became an increasingly important part of the local diet, consisting of fish on the reefs, within about one kilometer (one-half mile) from the shore. In the 9th century, connections between Eastern Africa and the Middle East included the export of thousands of slaves from Africas interior. The slaves were transported through Swahili coastal towns to destinations in Iraq such as Basra, where they worked on a dam. In 868, the slave revolted in Basra, weakening the market for slaves from Swahili. By ~1200, all of the large Swahili settlements included stone built mosques. The Growth of Swahili Towns Through the 11th-14th centuries, the Swahili towns expanded in scale, in the numbers and variety of imported and locally-produced material goods, and in trade relationships between the interior of Africa and other societies around the Indian Ocean. A wide variety of boats were built for sea-going trade. Although most of the houses continued to be made of earth and thatch, some of the houses were built of coral, and many of the larger and newer settlements were stone towns, communities marked by elite residences built of stone. Stonetowns grew in number and size, and trade blossomed. Exports included ivory, iron, animal products, mangrove poles for house construction; imports included glazed ceramics, beads and other jewelry, cloth, and religious texts. Coins  were minted in some of the larger centers, and iron and copper alloys, and beads of various types were produced locally. Portuguese Colonization In 1498-1499, the Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama began exploring the Indian Ocean. Beginning in the 16th century, Portuguese and Arab colonization began to decrease the power of the Swahili towns, evidenced by the construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593, and the increasingly aggressive trade wars in the Indian Ocean. The Swahili culture fought variously successfully against such incursions and although disruptions in trade and loss of autonomy did occur, the coast prevailed in urban and rural life. By the end of the 17th century, the Portuguese lost control of the western Indian Ocean to Oman and Zanzibar. The Swahili coast was reunited under the Omani sultanate in the 19th century. Sources Chami FA. 2009. Kilwa and the Swahili Towns: Reflections from an archaeological perspective. In: Larsen K, editor. Knowledge, Renewal and Religion: Repositioning and changing ideological and material circumstances among the Swahili on the East African coast. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitututet.Elkiss TH. 1973. Kilwa Kisiwani: The Rise of an East African City-State. African Studies Review 16(1):119-130.Phillipson D. 2005. African Archaeology. London: Cambridge University Press.Pollard E. 2011. Safeguarding Swahili trade in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: a unique navigational complex in south-east Tanzania. World Archaeology 43(3):458-477.Sutton JEG. 2002. The southern Swahili harbour and town on Kilwa Island, 800-1800 AD: A chronology of booms and slumps.: Uppsala University.Wynne-Jones S. 2007. Creating urban communities at Kilwa Kisiwani, Tanzania, AD 800-1300. Antiquity 81:368-380.